Published date: Sep 26 2024

Journal Title: West Kazakhstan Medical Journal

Issue title: West Kazakhstan Medical Journal: Volume 66 Issue 3

Pages: 239–254

DOI: 10.18502/wkmj.v66i3.16572

Saulesh S. Kurmangaliyeva saule_cc@mail.ruDepartment of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Saltanat T. Urazayevas.urazaeva@mail.ruDepartment of Epidemiology, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Yerlan Sh. Bazargaliyeverlan_73@inbox.ruDepartment of Internal Diseases No 1, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Khatimya I. Kudabayevahatima_aktobe@mail.ruDepartment of Internal Diseases No 1, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Kairat B. Kurmangaliyevkairat_121@mail.ruDepartment of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Saule K. Balmagambetovasau3567@gmail.comDepartment of Oncology, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Akzhan M. Madenbayevaa.madenbaeva@zkmu.kzDepartment of Internal Diseases No 1, West Kazakhstan Marat Ospanov Medical University, Aktobe

Studying the consequences of coronavirus infections caused by the SARS-CoV- 2 virus has become crucial in light of its widespread occurrence in society, and the frequent observation of persistent symptoms and health impairments following recovery from the acute phase of the illness. The pandemic has brought about a new chronic, debilitating condition known as long COVID, which deserves serious attention from scientific and medical communities. Currently, we have conflicting knowledge about the factors that may increase the risk of developing such a debilitating condition. The aim of this review was to assess prognostic risk factors for the development of post-COVID-19 conditions. We conducted a systematic search in the databases PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, CyberLeninka, and the eLibrary electronic library for reports on post-COVID-19 conditions up to April 2024. A total of 52 full-text studies meeting the inclusion criteria were analyzed from both Russian and international sources. The resulting review paper presents a comprehensive overview of recent studies aimed at examining factors preceding COVID-19 infection (gender, age, comorbidities, and others), factors related to COVID-19 infection (severity of acute phase, influence of biomarkers), and the impact of vaccinations on longterm consequences. Much remains unclear regarding long COVID and its risk factors due to conflicting data, possibly caused by the variety of symptoms and complex pathophysiology, including long-term organ damage and unresolved inflammatory processes. This review underscores the high prevalence of post-COVID conditions and the ambiguity in identifying risk factors, necessitating further research for effective management of these conditions.

[1] The 43rd World Health Assembly. International statistical classification of diseases and health-related problems, 10th revision [Internet]. 2010; URL: https://icd.who.int/browse10/Content/statichtml/ICD10Volume2_en_2010.pdf

[2] Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Condition after COVID-19 (postcovid syndrome) in adults > Clinical protocols of the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan: Ministry of Health of the Republic of Kazakhstan; 2023.

[3] Arutyunov GP, Tarlovskaya EI, Arutyunov AG, Belenkov YN, Konradi AO, et al. International register “Dynamics analysis of comorbidities in SARS-CoV-2 survivors” (AKTIV SARS-CoV-2): analysis of 1,000 patients. Russ. J. Cardiol. 2020;25(11):43-52. doi: 10.15829/29/1560-4071-2020-4165.

[4] Han Q, Zheng B, Dainez L, Sheikh A. Long-term effects of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of one-year follow-up studies of symptoms after COVID. Pathogens. 2022;11:269. doi: 10.3390/pathogens 110269.

[5] Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C., Palacios-Ceña D., Gómez-Mayordomo V., Florencio LL, Cuadrado ML, Plaza- Manzano G., Navarro-Santana M. Prevalence of symptoms after COVID-19 in hospitalized and non-hospitalized COVID-19 survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. J. Intern. Med. 2021;92 :55–70. doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2021.06.009.

[6] Chen C., Haupert SR, Zimmermann L., Shi X., Fritsche LG, Mukherjee B. Global prevalence of the condition after COVID-19 or long-term COVID: A meta-analysis and systematic review. J. Infect. Dis. 2022; 226 :1593–1607. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiac136

[7] Fernández-de-Las-Peñas C, Rodríguez-Jiménez J, Cancela-Cilleruelo I, Guerrero-Peral A, Martín-Guerrero JD, García-Azorín D, et al. Post-COVID-19 symptoms 2 years after sars-cov-2 infection among hospitalized vs nonhospitalized patients. JAMA Netw open. 2022;5(11).

[8] Ortona E, Malorni W. Long COVID: To investigate immunological mechanisms and sex / gender related aspects as fundamental steps for tailored therapy. Eur Respir J. 2022; 59: 2102245

[9] Luo D, Mei B, Wang P, Li X, Chen X, Wei G, et al. Prevalence and risk factors for persistent symptoms after COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2024;30 (3):328-335.

[10] Hejazian SS, Sadr AV, Shahjouei S, Vemuri A, Abedi V, Zand R. Prevalence and determinants of long-term post- COVID conditions in the United States: 2022 behavioral risk factor surveillance system. Am J Med. 2024; 12(1): 99.

[11] Yin Y, Guo Y, Xiao M, Chen Q, Long P, Wang X, et al. Health consequences among COVID-19 convalescent patients 30 months post-infection in China. Zoonoses. 2024;4(1).

[12] Quaranta, V. N., Portacci, A., Dragonieri, S., Locorotondo, C., Buonamico, E., Diaferia, F., Iorillo, I., Quaranta, S., & Carpagnano, G. E. The predictors of long COVID in Southeastern Italy. J. Clin. Med. 2023;12(19):6303. doi: 10.3390/jcm12196303.

[13] Saricaoglu EM, Cinar G, Azap A, Bayar MK, Tokay-Isιkay C, Kutlayacaksι S, Ibis S. Dark side of the COVID-19 pandemic; ‘Long COVID.’ Infect Dis Clin Microbiol. 2023;3:205-11. doi: 10.36519/idcm.2023.213.

[14] Hill EL, Mehta HB, Sharma S, Mane K, Singh SK, Xie C, et al. Risk factors associated with post-acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2: an N3C and NIH RECOVER study. BMC Public Health. 2023;23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12889-023-16916.

[15] Marra AR, Souza Sampaio V, Cintho Ozahata M, Lopes Paixão da Silva R, Brito A, Bragatte M et al. Risk factors for long COVID among healthcare workers, Brazil, 2020–2022. MedRxiv. 2023.

[16] Chelly S, Rouis S, Ezzi O, Ammar A, Fitouri S, Soua A, et al. Symptoms and risk factors for long COVID in Tunisian population. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2023;23(1). doi: 10.1186/s12913-023-09463-y.

[17] Wong MCS, Huang J, Wong YY, Wong GLH, Yip TCF, Chan RNY, et al. Epidemiology, symptomatology, and risk factors for long COVID symptoms: Population-based, multicenter study. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2023;9. doi: 10.2196/42315.

[18] Cui D, Wang Y, Huang L, Gu X, Huang Z, Mu S, et al. Rheumatic symptoms following coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A chronic post-COVID-19 condition. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2022;9(6).

[19] Deepa KR, Mohandas B, Thayyil J, Nair MS, Rosh P, Kumar D. Incidence and probable risk factors of post COVID syndrome among COVID-19 patients in urban population of North Kerala: A 6 months cohort study. Int J Community Med Public Heal. 2023;10(5).

[20] Asfandiyarova NS, Philippov E V., Dashkevich O V., Iakubovskaia AG, Moseichuk KA, Zhuravleva NS, et al. Risk factors for development of the post-COVID syndrome. Clinician (Goa). 2023;16(4).

[21] Nair C V., Moni M, Edathadathil F, Appukuttan A, Prasanna P, Raghavan RP, et al. Incidence and characterization of post-COVID-19 symptoms in hospitalized COVID-19 survivors to recognize syndemic connotations in India: Single-center prospective observational cohort study. JMIR Form Res. 2023;7.

[22] Babicki M, Kołat D, Kapusta J, Kałuzińska-Kołat Ż, Jankowski P, Mastalerz-Migas A, et al. Prevalence and assessment of risk factors among Polish adults with post-COVID-19 syndrome: A12-month follow-up study. Polish Arch Intern Med. 2023;133(12).

[23] Emecen AN, Keskin S, Turunc O, Suner AF, Siyve N, Basoglu Sensoy E, et al. The presence of symptoms within 6 months after COVID-19: A single-center longitudinal study. Ir J Med Sci. 2023;192(2).

[24] Guliani A, Tandon A, Chakraborti A, Gupta PP. Predictors of post COVID complications in patients admitted with moderateto severe COVID symptoms: A single center, prospective, observational study. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 2023;93(2).

[25] Martínez-Ayala MC, Proaños NJ, Cala-Duran J, Lora-Mantilla AJ, Cáceres-Ramírez C, Villabona-Flórez SJ, et al. Factors associated with long COVID syndrome in a Colombian cohort. Front Med. 2023;10.

[26] Alghamdi SA, Alfares MA, Alsulami RA, Alghamdi AF, Almalawi AM, Alghamdi MS, et al. Post-COVID-19 syndrome: Incidence, risk factor, and the most common persisting symptoms. Cureus. 2022;(11):e32058.

[27] Helmsdal G, Hanusson KD, Kristiansen MF, Foldbo BM, Danielsen ME, Steig BÁ, et al. Long COVID in the long run—23-month follow-up study of persistent symptoms. Open Forum. Infect. Dis. 2022;9:ofac270. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofac270.

[28] Philip KEJ, Buttery S, Williams P, Vijayakumar B, Tonkin J, Cumella A, et al. Impact of COVID-19 on people with asthma: A mixed methods analysis from a UK wide survey. BMJ Open Respir. Res. 2022;9:e001056. doi: 10.1136/bmjresp-2021-001056.

[29] Dryden M, Mudara C, Vika C, Blumberg L, Mayet N, Cohen C, et al. (2022). Post-COVID-19 condition 3 months after hospitalisation with SARS-CoV-2 in South Africa: A prospective cohort study. Lancet Glob Health. 2022;10(9):e1247-e1256.

[30] Subramanian A, Nirantharakumar K, Hughes S, Myles P, Williams T, Gokhale KM, et al. Symptoms and risk factors for long COVID in non-hospitalized adults. Nat. Med. 2022;28:1706–1714. doi: 10.1038/s41591-022-01909.

[31] Lu Y, Li X, Geng D, et al. Cerebral micro-structural changes in COVID-19 patients – An MRI-based 3-month follow-up study. EClinicalMedicine. 2020;25:100484.

[32] Miyazato Y, Morioka S, Tsuzuki S, et al. Prolonged and late-onset symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2020;7(11):ofaa507.

[33] Townsend L, Dyer AH, Jones K, et al.. Persistent fatigue following SARS-CoV-2 infection is common and independent of severity of initial infection. PLoS One. 2020;15(11):e0240784.

[34] van den Borst B, et al. Comprehensive health assessment three months after recovery from acute COVID-19. Clin Infect Dis. 2020; 73(5):e1089.

[35] Asadi-Pooya AA, Akbari A, Emami A, Lotfi M, Rostamihosseinkhani M, Nemati H, et al. Risk factors associated with long COVID syndrome: A retrospective study. Iran. J. Basic Med. Sci. 2021;46(6): 428-436.

[36] Benedetto IG, da Silva RMC, Hetzel GM, Viana G da S, Guimarães AR, Folador L, et al. Impact of impaired pulmonary function on clinical outcomes in survivors of severe COVID-19 without pre-existing respiratory disease. J Bras Pneumol. 2023;49(3).

[37] Bovil T, Wester CT, Scheel-Hincke LL, Andersen-Ranberg K. Risk factors of post-COVID-19 conditions attributed to COVID-19 disease in people aged ≥50 years in Europe and Israel. Public Health. 2023; 214:69-72.

[38] Inoue S, Hatakeyama J, Kondo Y, et al. Post-intensive care syndrome: Its pathophysiology, prevention, and future directions. Acute Med Surg. 2019;6(3):233–246.

[39] Nalbandian A, Desai AD, Wan EY. Post-COVID-19 condition. Vol. 74, Annual Review of Medicine. 2023: 55-64.

[40] Nune A, Durkowski V, Titman A, Gupta L, Hadzhiivanov M, Ahmed A, et al. Incidence and risk factors of long COVID in the UK: A single-centre observational study. J R Coll Physicians. 2021; 51(4):338-343. doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2021.405.

[41] Rescalvo-Casas C, Pérez-Tanoira R, Villegas RF, Hernando-Gozalo M, Seijas-Pereda L, Pérez-García F, et al. Clinical evolution and risk factors in patients infected during the first wave of COVID-19: A two-year longitudinal study. Trop. med. infect. 2023;8(7). doi:10.3390/tropicalmed8070340.

[42] Zhao YM, Shang YM, Song WB, et al. Follow-up study of the pulmonary function and related physiological characteristics of COVID-19 survivors three months after recovery. EClinicalMedicine. 2020;25:100463.

[43] Marvisi M, Ferrozzi F, Balzarini L, et al. First report on clinical and radiological features of COVID-19 pneumonitis in a Caucasian population: Factors predicting fibrotic evolution. Int J Infect Dis. 2020;99:485–488.

[44] Liao B, Liu Z, Tang L, et al. Longitudinal clinical and radiographic evaluation reveals interleukin-6 as an indicator of persistent pulmonary injury in COVID-19. Int J Med Sci. 2021;18(1):29–41.

[45] Raman B, Cassar MP, Tunnicliffe EM, et al. Medium-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection on multiple vital organs, exercise capacity, cognition, quality of life and mental health, post-hospital discharge. EClinicalMedicine. 2021;31:100683.

[46] Mandal S, Barnett J, Brill SE, et al.. Long-COVID’: A cross-sectional study of persisting symptoms, biomarker and imaging abnormalities following hospitalisation for COVID. Thorax. 2021;76(4):396–398.

[47] Liang L, Yang B, Jiang N, et al. Three-month Follow-up study of survivors of coronavirus disease 2019 after discharge. J Korean Med Sci. 2020;35(47):e418.

[48] Salmon D, Slama D, Broucker TD, et al. Clinical, virological and imaging profile in patients with Persistent or Resurgent forms of COVID-19: A cross-sectional study. J Infect. 2020;82(2): e1–e4.

[49] Fernandez-de-Las-Penas C, Palacios-Cena D, Gomez-Mayordomo V, et al. Defining post-COVID symptoms (postacute COVID, long COVID, persistent post-COVID): An integrative classification. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(5):2621.

[50] Selvakumar J, Havdal LB, Drevvatne M, Brodwall EM, Lund Berven L, Stiansen-Sonerud T, et al. Prevalence and characteristics associated with post-COVID-19 condition among nonhospitalized adolescents and young adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(3).

[51] Tsampasian V, Elghazaly H, Chattopadhyay R, Debski M, Naing TKP, Garg P, et al. Risk factors associated with post−COVID-19 condition. JAMA Intern Med. 2023;183(6): 566-580.

[52] Farah R, Al-Hawari H, Albtoush A, Nofal A, Hyasat TB, Abu Jabeh RAH, et al. Prevalence and risk factors of COVID-19 infection, mortality, and post-infection lung fibrosis in patients with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study. J Int Med Res. 2023;51(9).

[53] Mogensen I, Ekström S, Hallberg J, Georgelis A, Melén E, Bergström A, et al. Post COVID-19 symptoms are common, also among young adults in the general population. Sci Rep. 2023;13(1).

[54] Rando HM, Bennett TD, Byrd JB, et al. Challenges in defining long COVID: Striking differences across literature, Electronic Health Records, and patient-reported information. medRxiv. 2021. doi: 10.1101/2021.03.20.21253896