Sudan Journal of Medical Sciences
ISSN: 1858-5051
High-impact research on the latest developments in medicine and healthcare across MENA and Africa
Traditional Sudanese Medicine for Gastrointestinal and Hepatobiliary Disorders: A Narrative Review
Published date: Oct 16 2025
Journal Title: Sudan Journal of Medical Sciences
Issue title: Sudan JMS: Volume 20 (2025), Issue No. 3
Pages: 259 - 275
Authors:
Abstract:
Herbs such as Mentha piperita, Cymbopogon citratus, Zingiber officinale, Cichorium intybus, Elettaria cardamomum, Acacia nilotica, Boswellia papyrifera, and Balanites aegyptiaca are part of the Sudanese medicinal plants used to treat internal diseases, especially since inflammations of the digestive system are common across different regions of Sudan. These plants are widely used in Sudanese traditional medicine for gastrointestinal complaints, and their potential benefits warrant further investigation. This article reviews the availability of these herbs and highlights their use as traditional alternatives to pharmaceutical medicines in Sudan. It uses current data by manually screening the titles, and in some cases the abstracts, of retrieved articles containing the following keywords: “medicinal herbs,” “Sudanese medicinal herbs,” “traditional medicine,” “healers,” “digestive system disorder,” “Helicobacter pylori,” (H. pylori) and “jaundice” from the electronic databases PubMed and Google Scholar. Preference has been given to scientific articles, reports, and literature published within the past five years.
Keywords: Sudanese medicinal herbs, traditional medicine, traditional healers, digestive system disorder, Helicobacter pylori, jaundice
References:
[1] Negrut, N., Khan, S. A., Bungao, S., Zaha, D. C., Anca, C. A. R., Bratu, O., Diaconu, C. C., & Ionita-Radu, F. (2020). Diagnostic challenges in gastrointestinal infections. Romanian Journal of Military Medicine,123(2), 83–90.
[2] Fikree, A., & Byrne, P. (2021). Management of functional gastrointestinal disorders. Clinical Medicine, 21(1), 44–52. https://doi.org/10.7861/clinmed.2020- 0980
[3] Paul, J. (2024). Gastrointestinal tract infections. In Disease causing microbes (pp. 149–215). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-28567-7_4
[4] Mayer, E. A., Craske, M., & Naliboff, B. D. (2001). Depression, anxiety, and the gastrointestinal system. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62(Suppl 8), 28– 36.
[5] Domagała-Rodacka, R., Cibor, D., Szczeklik, K., Rodakhi, T., Mach, T., & Owczarek, D. (2016). Gastrointestinal tract as a side-effect target of medications. Przeglad Lekarski, 73(9), 652–658.
[6] Sands, B. E. (2004). From symptom to diagnosis: Clinical distinctions among various forms of intestinal inflammation. Gastroenterology, 126(6), 1518– 1532. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2004.02.072
[7] Mrouf, A., Albatish, I., Mosa, M., & Abu Naser, S. S. (2017). Knowledge based system for longterm abdominal pain (stomach pain) diagnosis and treatment. International Journal of Engineering and Information Systems, 1(4), 71–88.
[8] Ryabokon, E. V., Onishchenko, T. E., Furyk, E. A., & Mashko, O. P. (2014). Infections diseases with fecaioral transmission: Manual for practical training and independent work of students for the 5th year of the Medical Faculty on Infectious Diseases (Module No.1).
[9] Crum-Cianflone, N. F. (2008). Salmonellosis and the gastrointestinal tract: More than just peanut butter. Current Gastroenterology Reports, 10(4), 424–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11894-008-0079-7
[10] Eldam, A. G. (2004). Tendency of patients towards medical treatment and traditional healing in Sudan. Universität Oldenburg.
[11] Schulz, R. M., Ahuja, N. K., & Slavin, J. L. (2022). Effectiveness of nutritional ingredients on upper gastrointestinal conditions and symptoms: A narrative review. Nutrients, 14(3), 672.
[12] Best, R. (2022) Mint and menthol: A review of potential health benefits and wider human effects. Preprints. https://doi.org/10.20944/ preprints202212.0273.v1
[13] Hejna, M., Kovanda, L., Rossi, L., & Liu, Y. (2021). Mint oils: In vitro ability to perform anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities and to enhance intestinal barrier integrity. Antioxidants, 10(7), 1004. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10071004
[14] Valussi, M. (2011). Functional foods with digestionenhancing properties. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 63(sup1), 82–89. https://doi.org/10.3109/09637486.2011.627841
[15] Al-Worafi, Y. M. Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in Sudan. In Handbook of complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine (pp. 364–394). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003328759-20
[16] Silva, H. (2020). A descriptive overview of the medical uses given to Mentha aromatic herbs throughout history. Biology, 9(12), 484. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology9120484
[17] Khalid, H., Abdalla, W. E., Abdelgadir, H., Opatz, T., & Efferth, T. (2012). Gems from traditional North-African medicine: Medicinal and aromatic plants from Sudan. Natural Products and Bioprospecting, 2(3), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13659-012-0015-2
[18] Al-Worafi, Y. M. (2025). Evidence-based complementary, alternative, and integrated medicine and efficacy and safety: Nausea and vomiting. In Handbook of complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine (pp. 329–347). CRC Press.
[19] Madi, Y. F., Meselhy, M. R., El-Kashoury, E.- S. A., & Choucry, M. A. (2022). Morphological and anatomical characterization of Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf cultivated in Egypt. Bulletin of Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, 60(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.54634/2090-9101.1032
[20] Gupta, R. C., Srivastava, A., & Lall, R. (2019). Nutraceuticals in veterinary medicine (Vol. 120). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04624-8
[21] Nimenibo-Uadia, R., & Nwosu, E. (2020). Phytochemical, proximate, and mineral elements composition of lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf) grown in EkoSodin, Benin City, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Applied Science Research, 9(2), 52–56.
[22] Nambiar, V. S., & Matela, H. (2012). Potential functions of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) in health and disease. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Archives,3(5), 1035– 1043.
[23] Chen, H., Li, J., Zhao, Y., Sheng, J., Tian, Y., & Fan, Y. (2023). Cymbopogon citratus (DC.). The potential role of gut microbiome in animal gut-linked diseases.
[24] Gao, X., Hu, Y., Tao, Y., Liu, S., Chen, H., Li, J., Zhao, Y., Sheng, J., Tian, Y., & Fan, Y. (2022). Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf aqueous extract ameliorates loperamide-induced constipation in mice by promoting gastrointestinal motility and regulating the gut microbiota. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 1017804. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.1017804
[25] Oladeji, O. S., Adelowo, F. E., Ayodele, D. T., & Odelade, K. A. (2019). Phytochemistry and pharmacological activities of Cymbopogon citratus: A review. Scientific African, 6, e00137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00137
[26] Shahrajabian, M. H., Sun, W., & Cheng, Q. (2019). Clinical aspects and health benefits of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in both traditional Chinese medicine and modern industry. Acta Agriculturæ Scandinavica. Section B, Soil and Plant Science, 69(6), 546–556. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2019.1606930
[27] Ali, K., Flare, A., & Flinn, G. (2024). An overview of the traditional and modern applications of ginger. Journal of Health Science and Research, 4(10), 10– 16. https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.13254798
[28] Khodaie, L., & Sadeghpoor, O. (2015). Ginger from ancient times to the new outlook. Jundishapur Journal of Natural Pharmaceutical Products, 10(1), e18402. https://doi.org/10.17795/jjnpp-18402
[29] Wu, K.-L., Rayner, C. K., Chuah, S. K., Changchien, C. S., Lu, S. N., Chiu, Y. C., Chiu, K. W., & Lee, C. M. (2008). Effects of ginger on gastric emptying and motility in healthy humans. European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 20(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.1097/MEG.0b013e3282f4b224
[30] Giacosa, A., Morazzoni, P., Bombardelli, E., Riva, A., Bianchi Porro, G., & Rondanelli, M. (2015). Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract? European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 19(7), 1291–1296.
[31] Claudya, R. P., Sugiaman, H. A., Labiba, S. I., Utari, M. P., & Gunawan, D. (2023). The therapeutic effects of ginger extract on gastrointestinal disorders to adults. Science Midwifery, 11(1), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.35335/midwifery.v11i1.1183
[32] Temmante, K., Chaachouay, N., Benkhingue. O., & Azeroul. A. (2025). Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae). In Comprehensive guide to hallucinogenic plants (pp. 394–410). CRC Press.
[33] Javed, K., Rasheed, M., Farrukh, N., Niaz, S., Hameed, T., Maqsood, M. A., Sabir, A., Javed, M., Asghar, A., & Shafi, N. (2024). Use of 6- Gingerol as potential prebiotics to promote gut health. Complementary and Alternative Medicine: Prebiotics and Probiotics, 75–81.
[34] Haniadka, R., Saldanha, E., Sunita, V., Palatty, P. L., Fayad, R., & Baliga, M. S. (2013). A review of the gastroprotective effects of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe). Food & Function,4(6), 845–855. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3fo30337c
[35] Lin, R. J., Chen, C. Y., Lu, C. M., Ma, Y. H., Chung, L. Y., Wang, J. J., Lee, J. D., & Yen, C. M. (2014). Anthelmintic constituents from ginger (Zingiber officinale) against Hymenolepis nana. Acta Tropica, 140, 50–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. actatropica.2014.07.009
[36] Saxena, R., Sulakhiya, K. B., & Rathore, M. (2014). Cichorium intibus Linn.: A review of pharmacological profile. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research, 6(4), 11–15.
[37] Das, S., Vasudeva, N., & Sharma, S. (2016). Cichorium intybus: A concise report on its ethnomedicinal, botanical, and phytopharmacological aspects. Drug Development and Therapeutics, 7(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4103/2394-6555.180157
[38] Janda, K., Gutowska, I., Geszke-Moritz, M., & Jakubczyk, K. (2021). The common cichory (Cichorium intybus L.) as a source of extracts with health-promoting properties—A review. Molecules, 26(6), 1814. https://doi.org/10.3390/ molecules26061814
[39] Ozturk, M., Altay, V., & Younessi-Hamzekhanlu, M. (2023). Traditional and modern medicinal uses of Cichorium intybus roots. In R. K. Bachheti & A. Bachheti (Eds.), Medicinal roots and tubers for pharmaceutical and commercial applications (1st ed., p. 101). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b22924
[40] Mehvish, S., & Barkat, M. Q. (2018). Phytochemical and antioxidant screening of Amomum subulatum, Elettaria cardamomum, Emblica officinalis, Rosa damascene, Santalum album and Valeriana officinalis and their effect on stomach, liver and heart. Matrix Science Pharma, 2(2), 21–26. https://doi.org/10.26480/msp.02.2018.21.26
[41] Qiblawi, S., Kausar, M. A., Shahid, S. M. A., Saeed, M., & Alazzeh, A. Y. (2020). Therapeutic interventions of cardamom in cancer and other human diseases. Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International, 32(22), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.9734/jpri/2020/v32i2230774
[42] Khatiban, M., Mirzaie, M., Fazeli, A., Tapak, L., & Khalili, Z. (2022). Effect of cardamom inhalation therapy on intra-and postoperative nausea and vomiting of mothers undergoing spinal anesthesia for elective cesarean section. Journal of Perianesthesia Nursing, 37(4), 452–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopan.2021.09.008
[43] Banerjee, S., & Bose, S. (2024). Role of the Indian spice cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) in natural and herbal medicine. In Medicinal spices and herbs from India (pp. 299–313). Apple Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003511694-16
[44] Heam, T. (2022). Effects of administration clove (Syzygium aromaticum) and cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) extract and their combination via drinking water on performances and blood parameters of white leghorn. Haramaya University. https://afribary.com/works/effectsof- administration-clove-syzygium-aromaticumand- cardamom-elettaria-cardamomum-extractand- their-combination-via-drinking-water-onperformances- and-blood-parameters-of-whiteleghorn- la
[45] Ndamitso, M., Mustapha, S., Etsuyankpa, B. M., & Alexander, A. I. (2017). Evaluation of chemical composition of Acacia nilotica seeds. FUW Trends in Science & Technology Journal, 2(2), 927–931.
[46] Sadiq, M. B., Tharaphan, P., Chotivanich, K., Tarning, J., & Anal, A. K. (2017). In vitro antioxidant and antimalarial activities of leaves, pods and bark extracts of Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 17(1), 372. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-017-1878-x
[47] Koubé, J., Dongmo, S. S., Guiama. V. D., Bum, E. N. (2016). Ethnomedicinal survey of Gavdé (Acacia nilotica): A medicinal plant used in Sahelian zone of Cameroon, Central Africa. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 16(4), 820–827.
[48] Badar, N., Iqbal, Z., Khan, M. N., & Akhtar, M.S. (2011). In vitro and in vivo anthelmintic activity of Acacia nilotica (L.) willd. ex delile bark and leaves. Pakistan Veterinary Journal, 31(3), 185–191.
[49] Bansal, V. K., & Goel, R. K. (2012). Gastroprotective effect of Acacia nilotica young seedless pod extract: Role of polyphenolic constituents. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 5(7), 523–528. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1995-7645(12)60092-3
[50] Amadou, I., Soulé, M., & Salé, A. (2020). An overview on the importance of Acacia nilotica (L.) willd. ex del.: A review. Asian Journal of Research in Agriculture and Forestry, 5(3), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajraf/2020/v5i330085
[51] Hafez, L. O., Brito-Casillas, Y., Abdelmageed, N., Alemán-Cabrera, I. M., Morad, S. A. F., Abdel- Raheem, M. H., & Wägner, A. M. (2024). The acacia (Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb.): Traditional uses and recent advances on its pharmacological attributes and potential activities. Nutrients, 16(24), 4278. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16244278
[52] Mahmood, N., & Yahya, K. (2017). Nutrient and phytochemical of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) seeds. International Journal of Sciences, Basic and Applied Research, 36(3), 203–213.
[53] Krayem, M., Baydoun, M., Khaled, S., El Khatib, S., & Nasrallah, K. (2025). Nutritional, biochemical composition and health benefits of fenugreek plant and its applications in food industry: A review. In Natural products (pp. 1–20). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-36202-6_280-1
[54] Dhull, S.B., Chandak, A., Bamal, P., Malik, A., & Kidwai, M.K. (2021). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum): Nutritional, health properties and food uses. In M. Naeem, T. Aftab, M. M. A. Khan (Eds.) Fenugreek. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978- 981-16-1197-1_10
[55] Mehrafarin, A., Qaderi, A., Rezazadeh, Sh., Naghdi, B. H., Noorhammadi, Gh., & Zand, E. (2010). Bioengineering of important secondary metabolites and metabolic pathways in fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.). Journal of Medicinal Plants, 9(35), 1–18.
[56] Thakurdesai, A. (2023). P., Characterization, preclinical efficacy and toxicity evaluations of flavonoids glycosides based standardized fenugreek seed extract FEFLG. Pharmacognosy Journal, 15(1), 90– 105. https://doi.org/10.5530/pj.2023.15.13
[57] Singh, U., Chamoli, M., Singh, K. P., Ram, L., Jangir, S., Maheshwari, R. K. (2022). Amazing health benefit of fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum LINN.). International Journal of Environment and Health Sciences, 4(2), 19–27. https://doi.org/10.47062/1190.0402.03
[58] Srinivasan, K. (2006). Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum): A review of health beneficial physiological effects. Food Reviews International, 22(2), 203–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 87559120600586315
[59] DiSilvestro, R. A., Verbruggen, M. A., & Offutt, E. J. (2011). Anti-heartburn effects of a fenugreek fiber product. Phytotherapy Research, 25(1), 88–91. https: //doi.org/10.1002/ptr.3229
[60] Mandegary, A., Pournamdari, M., Sharififar, F., Pournourmohammadi, S., Fardiar, R., & Shooli, S. (2012). Alkaloid and flavonoid rich fractions of fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) with antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50(7), 2503–2507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.04.020
[61] Isaakidis, A., Maghariki, J. E., Carvalho-Barros, S., Gomes, A. M., & Correia, M. (2023). Is there more to olive oil than healthy lipids? Nutrients, 15(16), 3625. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15163625
[62] Schirone, L., Overi, D., Carpino, G., Carnevale, R., De Falco, E., Nocella, C., D’Amico, A., Bartimoccia, S., Cammisotto, V., Castellani, V., Frati, G., Sciarretta, S., Gaudio, E., Pignatelli, P., Alvaro, D., & Violi, F. (2024). Oleuropein, a component of extra virgin olive oil, improves liver steatosis and lobular inflammation by lipopolysaccharides–tlr4 axis downregulation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(11), 5580. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25115580
[63] Tafti, L. D., Shariatpanahi, S. M., Damghani, M. M., & Javadi, B. (2017). Traditional Persian topical medications for gastrointestinal diseases. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences, 20(3), 222–241.
[64] Kaur, R., Sood, A., Kanotra, M., Arora, S., Subramaniyan, V., Bhatia, S., Al-Harrasi, A., Aleya, L., & Behl, T. (2021). Pertinence of nutriments for a stalwart body. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 28(39), 54531– 54550. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16060-1
[65] Bartolí, R., Fernández-Ba nares, F., Navarro, E., Castellà, E., Ma né, J., Alvarez, M., Pastor, C., Cabré, E., & Gassull, M. A. (2000). Effect of olive oil on early and late events of colon carcinogenesis in rats: Modulation of arachidonic acid metabolism and local prostaglandin E(2) synthesis. Gut, 46(2), 191– 199. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.46.2.191
[66] Hamidpour, R., Hamidpour, S., Hamidpour, M., & Shahlari, M. (2013). Frankincense (rǔ xiāng; Boswellia species): From the selection of traditional applications to the novel phytotherapy for the prevention and treatment of serious diseases. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 3(4), 221– 226. https://doi.org/10.4103/2225-4110.119723
[67] Abdelwahab, S. I., Taha, M. M. E., Jerah, A. A., Farasani, A., Abdullah, S. M., Aljahdali, I. A., Oraibi, O., Oraibi, B., Alfaifi, H. A., Alzahrani, A. H., & Babiker, Y. O. H. (2024). Insights into frankincense and myrrh research: A comprehensive analytical study of patterns and perspectives. Heliyon, 10(19), e38102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e38102
[68] Almeida-da-Silva, C. L. C., Sivakumar, N., Asadi, H., Chang-Chien, A., Qoronfleh, M. W., Ojcius, D. M., & Essa, M. M. (2022). Effects of frankincense compounds on infection, inflammation, and oral health. Molecules, 27(13), 4174. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27134174
[69] Su, S., Duan, J., Chen, T., Huang, X., Shang, E., Yu, L., Wei, K., Zhu, Y., Guo, J., Guo, S., Liu, P., Qian, D., & Tang, Y. (2015). Frankincense and myrrh suppress inflammation via regulation of the metabolic profiling and the MAPK signaling pathway. Scientific Reports, 5, 13668. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13668
[70] Suther, C., Daddi, L., Bokoliya, S., Panier, H., Liu, Z., Lin, Q., Han, Y., Chen, K., Moore, M. D., & Zhou, Y. (2022). Dietary Boswellia serrata acid alters the gut microbiome and blood metabolites in experimental models. Nutrients, 14(4), 814. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14040814
[71] Al-Yasiry, A. R., & Kiczorowska, B. (2016). Frankincense—Therapeutic properties. Postępy Higieny i Medycyny Doświadczalnej, 70, 380–391. https://doi.org/10.5604/17322693.1200553
[72] Khamis, G., Saleh, A. M., Habeeb, T. H., Hozzein, W. N., Wadaan, M. A. M., Papenbrock, J., & AbdElgawad, H. (2020). Provenance effect on bioactive phytochemicals and nutritional and health benefits of the desert date Balanites aegyptiaca. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 44(6), e13229. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13229
[73] Murthy, H. N., Yadav, G. G., Dewir, Y. H., & Ibrahim, A. (2020). Phytochemicals and biological activity of desert date (Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile). Plants, 10(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10010032
[74] Friday, O. A., Ojuto, E. M., Abraham, G. T., & Oneh, A. J. (2022). Comparative evaluation of amino acid profile and in vitro antioxidant activity of Balanites aeqyptiaca (L.) delile meal, defatted and concentrate. Journal of Food Chemistry and Nanotechnology, 8(4), 201–210.
[75] Mariod, A. A., & AhmedIsmail, E. M. (2022). Biological activities of Balanites aegyptiaca (Heglig) kernel oil. In Multiple biological activities of unconventional seed oils (pp. 339–344). Elsevier.
[76] Isa, M. (2021). Laboratory assessment of molluscicidal and cercaricidal activities of Balanites aegyptiaca against vectors of schistosomiasis (Biomphalaria pfeifferi). International Journal of Research and Review, 8(5), 479–486. https://doi.org/10.52403/ijrr.20210558
[77] Dey, H., & Shaili, S. (2023). Exploring the phytochemical diversity and pharmacological potentials of Balanite aegyptiaca: A review. International Journal of Newgen Research in Pharmacy & Healthcare, 1(2), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.61554/ijnrph.v1i2.2023.34
[78] Al Faki Adam, I. A. (2019). The role of wild fruits in mitigating hunger. In A. Mariod (Ed.), Wild fruits: Composition, nutritional value and products. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31885-7_1
[79] Ya’u, J., Abdulmalik, U. N., Yaro, A. H., Chindo, B. A., Anuka, J. A., & Hussaini, I. M. (2011). Behavioral properties of Balanites aegyptiaca in rodents. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,135(3), 725–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2011.04.003
[80] Hassan, L. E. A., Dahham, S. S., Saghir, S. A., Mohammed, A. M., Eltayeb, N. M., Majid, A. M., & Majid, A. S. (2016). Chemotherapeutic potentials of the stem bark of Balanite aegyptiaca (L.) Delile: An antiangiogenic, antitumor and antioxidant agent. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 16(1), 396. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-016-1369-5
[81] Abbas, M. W., Shamshad, T., Ashraf, M., & Javaid, R. (2016). Jaundice: A basic review. International Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 4(5), 1313–1319. https://doi.org/10.18203/2320-6012.ijrms20161196
[82] Thomas, H. C., Lok, A. S. F., Locarnini, S. A., & Zuckerman, A. J. (2013). Viral hepatitis. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118637272
[83] Ali, S. A., Sharief, N. H., & Mohamed, Y. S. (2019). Hepatoprotective activity of some medicinal plants in Sudan. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine: eCAM, 2019(1), 2196315. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2196315
[84] Tewari, D., Mocan, A., Parvanov, E. D., Sah, A. N., Nabavi, S. M., Huminiecki, L., Ma, Z. F., Lee, Y. Y., Horbańczuk, J. O., & Atanasov, A. G. (2017). Ethnopharmacological approaches for therapy of jaundice: Part I. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 8, 518. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2017.00518
[85] Kumar, K. P. S., Bhowmik, D., Biswajit, Chiranjib, Pankaj, Tripathi, K. K., & Chandira, M. (2010). Traditional Indian herbal plants tulsi and its medicinal importance. Research Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 2(2), 93–101.
[86] Crabb, C. (2004). Science meets tradition and identifies herbal treatment for jaundice. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 82(2), 154.
[87] Tobyn, G., Denham, A., & Whitelegg, M. (2011). Artemisia absinthium, wormwood. In The Western herbal tradition: 2000 years of medicinal plant knowledge (1st ed., pp. 105–121). London, UK: Singing Dragon.
[88] Mariod, A., Mohamedain, A., & Tahir, H. E. (2023). Medicinal plants and phytomedicines are used to treat or prevent illnesses in Sudan: A review. Traditional Medicine Research, 8(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.53388/TMR20220323003
[89] Fangbo, A., Wilfred, N. D., Joseph, C. N., Mbaiguinam, M., & Nicolas, N. Y. (2024). Production, nutritional value and toxicity of Kawal, a fermented product from the leaves of Cassia obtusifolia (L.): A review. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety, 16(2), 30–41. https://doi.org/10.9734/ejnfs/2024/v16i21385
[90] Yagi, S., Tigani, S. E., & Adam, S. (1998). Toxicity of Senna obtusifolia fresh and fermented leaves (kawal), Senna alata leaves and some products from Senna alata on rats. Phytotherapy Research, 12(5), 324–330. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099- 1573(199808)12:5<324::AID-PTR300>3.0.CO;2-2
[91] Bauer, B., & Meyer, T. F. (2011). The human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori and its association with gastric cancer and ulcer disease. Ulcers, 2011(1), 340157.
[92] Ghasemian, A., Fattahi, A., Shokouhi Mostafavi, S. K., Almarzoqi, A. H., Memariani, M., Ben Braiek, O., Yassine, H. M., Mostafavi, N. S. S., Ahmed, M. M., & Mirforughi, S. A. (2019). Herbal medicine as an auspicious therapeutic approach for the eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection: A concise review. Journal of Cellular Physiology, 234(10), 16847– 16860. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.28363
[93] Stoicov, C., Saffari, R., & Houghton, J. (2009). Green tea inhibits Helicobacter growth in vivo and in vitro. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 33(5), 473–478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2008.10.032
[94] Panahi, Y., Khedmat, H., Valizadegan, G., Mohtashami, R., & Sahebkar, A. (2015). Efficacy and safety of Aloe vera syrup for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease: A pilot randomized positive-controlled trial. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 35(6), 632–636. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0254-6272(15)30151-5
[95] Yahya, R., Al-Rajhi, A. M. H., Alzaid, S. Z., Al Abboud, M. A., Almuhayawi, M. S., Al Jaouni, S. K., Selim, S., Ismail, K. S., & Abdelghany, T. M. (2022). Molecular docking and efficacy of Aloe vera gel based on chitosan nanoparticles against Helicobacter pylori and its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Polymers, 14(15), 2994. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym14152994
[96] Imoto, I., Yasuma, T., D’Alessandro-Gabazza, C. N., Oka, S., Misaki, M., Horiki, N., & Gabazza, E. C. (2023). Antimicrobial effects of lactoferrin against Helicobacter pylori infection. Pathogens, 12(4), 599. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12040599
[97] El-Sherbiny, G. M., & Elbestawy, M. K. (2022). A review–Plant essential oils active against Helicobacter pylori. The Journal of Essential Oil Research, 34(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/10412905.2022.2025464
[98] Ravisankar, P., Koushik, O. S., Reddy, A. A., Kumar, U. E., Anvith, P. S., & Pragna, P. (2016). A detailed analysis on acidity and ulcers in esophagus, gastric and duodenal ulcers and management. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences (IOSR-JDMS), 15(1), 94–114. https://doi.org/10.9790/0853-1511094114
[99] Oppong, P., Majumdar, D., Atherton, J., & Bebb, J. (2015). Helicobacter pylori infection and peptic ulcers. Medicine, 43(4), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpmed.2015.01.008
[100] Nikkhah Bodagh, M., Maleki, I., & Hekmatdoost, A. (2018). Ginger in gastrointestinal disorders: A systematic review of clinical trials. Food Science & Nutrition, 7(1), 96–108. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.807
[101] Thavorn, K., Mamdani, M. M., & Straus, S. E. (2014). Efficacy of turmeric in the treatment of digestive disorders: A systematic review and metaanalysis protocol. Systematic Reviews, 3(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-3-71
[102] Hussein, H. J., Hameed, I. H., & Hadi, M. Y. (2017). A review: Anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory effect and cardiovascular effects of garlic: Allium sativum. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology, 10(11), 4069–4078. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974- 360X.2017.00738.7
[103] Gagnier JJ, Boon H, Rochon P, Moher D, Barnes J, Bombardier C; CONSORT Group. Reporting randomized, controlled trials of herbal interventions: an elaborated CONSORT statement. Ann Intern Med. 2006 Mar 7;144(5):364-7. https://doi.org/10. 7326/0003-4819-144-5-200603070-00013
[104] Chen, S. L., Yu, H., Luo, H. M., Wu, Q., Li, C. F., & Steinmetz, A. (2016). Conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants: Problems, progress, and prospects. Chinese Medicine, 11, 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13020-016-0108-7
[105] Noviana, E., Indrayanto, G., & Rohman, A. (2022). Advances in fingerprint analysis for standardization and quality control of herbal medicines. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, 853023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2022.853023
[106] Dubale, S., Usure, R. E., Mekasha, Y. T., Hasen, G., Hafiz, F., Kebebe, D., & Suleman, S. (2025). Traditional herbal medicine legislative and regulatory framework: A cross-sectional quantitative study and archival review perspectives. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 16, 1475297. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2025.1475297
[107] Izzo, A. A., Hoon-Kim, S., Radhakrishnan, R., & Williamson, E. M. (2016). A critical approach to evaluating clinical efficacy, adverse events and drug interactions of herbal remedies. Phytotherapy Research, 30(5), 691–700. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.5591
[108] Jama, N., Nyembezi, A., Ngcobo, S., & Lehmann, U. (2024). Collaboration between traditional health practitioners and biomedical health practitioners: Scoping review. African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine, 16(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v16i1.4430
[109] Newman, D. J., & Cragg, G. M. (2020). Natural products as sources of new drugs over the nearly four decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019. Journal of Natural Products, 83(3), 770–803. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01285
[110] Smith-Hall, C., Pyakurel, D., Meilby, H., Pouliot, M., Ghimire, P. L., Ghimire, S., Madsen, S. T., Paneru, Y. R., Subedi, B. P., Timoshyna, A., & Treue, T. (2023). The sustainability of trade in wild plants – A dataintegration approach tested on critically endangered Nardostachys jatamansi. PNAS Nexus, 2, pgad328. https://doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad328
[111] Moeta, M., Musie, M., Seretlo, R., Ledimo, M., Rasweswe, M., Makhavhu, E., & Mulaudzi, F. (2023). Traditional health practitioners’ training needs on biomedical knowledge and skills in a South African township. African Journal of Primary Health Care & Family Medicine, 15(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.4102/phcfm.v15i1.3923
