Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2) for Motor Skills in ADHD with Speech Delay

Published date: Mar 27 2025

Journal Title: KnE Social Sciences

Issue title: The 3rd International Conference of Applied Psychology on Humanity (ICAP-H)

Pages: 90 - 102

DOI: 10.18502/kss.v10i7.18305

Ahmad Syahru Mubarok Harismansyahru7@gmail.comSpecial school for Autistic Laboratory, State University of Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Lokananta Teguh Hari WigunoDepartment of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, Faculty of Sports and Science, State University of Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Herdhika Ayu Retno KusumasariDepartment of Midwifery, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Brawijaya, Malang, Indonesia

Laras Putri GamagittaDepartment of Physical Education, Health and Recreation, Faculty of Sports and Science, State University of Malang, Malang, Indonesia

Anditri WeningtyasDepartment of Sport Science, Faculty of Sports and Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent mental health condition in children, often accompanied by multiple concurrent disorders. This study explores the effectiveness of the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2) in improving motor skills among children with ADHD and Speech Delay. Using a single-subject A research design, we evaluated six core motor skills outlined by TGMD-2: Running, Galloping, Hopping, Leaping, Horizontal Jumping, and Sliding. Our findings reveal that TGMD-2 exercises a positive influence on motor skill proficiency in children with ADHD and Speech Delay. The study confirms that TGMD-2 can significantly enhance motor skills in children with ADHD and Speech Delay, which may contribute to better academic performance and social integration. Clinicians should integrate TGMD-2 in early interventions, while policymakers advocate for supporting resources. Future research must explore the long-term impact of motor skill development on cognitive, social outcomes, and underlying neurobiological mechanisms.

Keywords: ADHD, motor Skill, motor skills proficiency, single-subject A-B research design, TGMD-2

[1] Adamou M, Arif M, Asherson P, Aw TC, Bolea B, Coghill D, et al. Occupational issues of adults with ADHD. BMC Psychiatry. 2013 Feb;13(1):59.

[2] Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Kahle J, Madhoo M, Kewley G. Long-Term Outcomes of ADHD: Academic Achievement and Performance. J Atten Disord. 2020 Jan;24(1):73– 85.

[3] Athanasiadou A, Buitelaar JK, Brovedani P, Chorna O, Fulceri F, Guzzetta A, et al. Early motor signs of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2020 Jul;29(7):903–16.

[4] Bao R, Wade L, Leahy AA, Owen KB, Hillman CH, Jaakkola T, et al. Associations Between Motor Competence and Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2024 Aug;54(8):2141–56.

[5] Calero-Morales S, Vinueza-Burgos GD, Yance-Carvajal CL, Paguay-Balladares WJ. Gross Motor Development in Preschoolers through Conductivist and Constructivist Physical Recreational Activities: comparative Research. Sports (Basel). 2023 Mar;11(3):61.

[6] Chan AY, Ma TT, Lau WC, Ip P, Coghill D, Gao L, et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder medication consumption in 64 countries and regions from 2015 to 2019: a longitudinal study. In eClinicalMedicine. Volume 58. Elsevier BV; 2023. p. 101780.

[7] Chen T, Tachmazidis I, Batsakis S, Adamou M, Papadakis E, Antoniou G. Diagnosing attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) using artificial intelligence: a clinical study in the UK. Front Psychiatry. 2023 Jun;14:1164433.

[8] Chen Y, Tsao F, Liu H, Huang YJ. Distinctive patterns of language and executive functions contributing to reading development in chinese-speaking children with ADHD. Read Writ. 2022; https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-022-10323-0.

[9] Cook J, Knight E, Hume I, Qureshi A. The self-esteem of adults diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a systematic review of the literature. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2014 Dec;6(4):249–68.

[10] Demircioğlu A, Atasavun Uysal S, Şanlı Dumankaya BB, Kırdı E, Tuna Çak Esen H, Dağ O, et al. Do Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder Present with Different Spatio-Temporal Gait Parameters? An Evaluation of the Relationship Between Gait and Gross Motor Skills. Alpha Psychiatry. 2023 Jan;24(1):1–7.

[11] Dougherty CC, Evans DW, Myers SM, Moore GJ, Michael AM. A Comparison of Structural Brain Imaging Findings in Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychol Rev. 2016 Mar;26(1):25–43.

[12] Draper CE, Tomaz SA, Jones RA, Hinkley T, Twine R, Kahn K, et al. Cross-sectional associations of physical activity and gross motor proficiency with adiposity in South African children of pre-school age. Public Health Nutr. 2019 Mar;22(4):614–23.

[13] Frodl T, Skokauskas N. Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2012 Feb;125(2):114–26.

[14] Griffiths A, Toovey R, Morgan PE, Spittle AJ. Psychometric properties of gross motor assessment tools for children: a systematic review. BMJ Open. 2018 Oct;8(10):e021734.

[15] Jacobson LA, Crocetti D, Dirlikov B, Slifer K, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH, et al. Anomalous Brain Development Is Evident in Preschoolers With Attention- Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2018 Jul;24(6):531–9.

[16] Katsarou DV, Efthymiou E, Kougioumtzis GA, Sofologi M, Theodoratou M. Identifying Language Development in Children with ADHD: Differential Challenges, Interventions, and Collaborative Strategies. Children (Basel). 2024 Jul;11(7):841.

[17] Lelong M, Zysset A, Nievergelt M, Luder R, Götz U, Schulze C, et al. How effective is fine motor training in children with ADHD? A scoping review. In: Pediatrics BM, editor. Issue 1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC. Volume 21. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-021-02916-5.

[18] Liang WH, Gn LW, Tan YC, Tan GH. Speech and language delay in children: a practical framework for primary care physicians. Singapore Med J. 2023 Dec;64(12):745–50.

[19] Macdonald K, Milne N, Orr R, Pope R. Relationships Between Motor Proficiency and Academic Performance in Mathematics and Reading in School-Aged Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018 Jul;15(8):1603.

[20] MacDonald M, Lord C, Ulrich DA. Motor skills and calibrated autism severity in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapt Phys Activ Q. 2014 Apr;31(2):95–105.

[21] Memarmoghaddam M, Torbati HT, Sohrabi M, Mashhadi A, Kashi A. Effects of a selected exercise programon executive function of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Med Life. 2016;9(4):373–9.

[22] Pan CY, Chu CH, Tsai CL, Sung MC, Huang CY, Ma WY. The impacts of physical activity intervention on physical and cognitive outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism. 2017 Feb;21(2):190–202.

[23] Ramos-Galarza C, Brito D, Rodríguez B, Guerrero B, Cruz-Cárdenas J, Bola nos- Pasquel M. Systematic Review of Executive Function Stimulation Methods in the ADHD Population. J Clin Med. 2024 Jul;13(14):4208.

[24] Rocco I, Corso B, Bonati M, Minicuci N. Time of onset and/or diagnosis of ADHD in European children: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry. 2021 Nov;21(1):575.

[25] Salari N, Ghasemi H, Abdoli N, Rahmani A, Shiri MH, Hashemian AH, et al. The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ital J Pediatr. 2023 Apr;49(1):48.

[26] Sarıyer MN, Tadıhan Özkan E, Fidan ST. The Relationship Between Speech and Language Disorders and Working Memory: Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder and Typical Development. J Atten Disord. 2023 Oct;27(12):1420–30. ; Advance online publication.

[27] Schweitzer JB, Faber TL, Grafton ST, Tune LE, Hoffman JM, Kilts CD. Alterations in the functional anatomy of working memory in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 Feb;157(2):278–80.

[28] Shetty T, Ganesan S, Johari A, Mullerpatan R. Gross motor function profile of children with cerebral palsy in a low-resource setting: A call for reflection on the model of care. J Pediatr Rehabil Med. 2023;16(1):211–8.

[29] Simmons RW, Taggart TC, Thomas JD, Mattson SN, Riley EP. Gait control in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum Mov Sci. 2020 Apr;70:102584.

[30] Song P, Zha M, Yang Q, Zhang Y, Li X, Rudan I. The prevalence of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A global systematic review and metaanalysis. Journal of Global Health. Volume 11. International Global Health Society; 2021. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.11.04009.

[31] Sorsdahl AB, Moe-Nilssen R, Strand LI. Test-retest reliability of spatial and temporal gait parameters in children with cerebral palsy as measured by an electronic walkway. Gait Posture. 2008 Jan;27(1):43–50.

[32] Soto EF, Irwin LN, Chan ES, Spiegel JA, Kofler MJ. Executive functions and writing skills in children with and without ADHD. Neuropsychology. 2021 Nov;35(8):792– 808.

[33] Stoodley CJ. The Cerebellum and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Cerebellum. 2016 Feb;15(1):34–7.

[34] Thomas R, Sanders S, Doust J, Beller E, Glasziou P. Prevalence of attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2015 Apr;135(4):e994–1001.

[35] Ulrich DA, Sanford CB. Test of gross motor development. Austin (TX): Pro-ed; 1985.

[36] WA. A.-D. (2018). Speech and Language Disorders in ADHD. In Abnormal and Behavioural Psychology (Vol. 04, Issue 01). OMICS Publishing Group. https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-0496.1000134.

[37] Wang H, Chen Y, Liu J, Sun H, Gao W. A Follow-Up Study of Motor Skill Development and Its Determinants in Preschool Children from Middle-Income Family. In: Gao Z, editor. BioMed Research International. Volume 2020. Hindawi Limited; 2020. pp. 1–13.

[38] Xie Y, Gao X, Song Y, Zhu X, Chen M, Yang L, et al. Effectiveness of Physical Activity Intervention on ADHD Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Psychiatry. 2021 Oct;12:706625.